Research Articles
The following is a list of research articles specifically on the Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes® methods. The articles are listed in alphabetical order by the first author. Titles, Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched, abstracts, links to obtain the articles in their entirety, and references are provided.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
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Title: Diagnosis and Treatment of Reading Disabilities Based on the Component Model of Reading: An Alternative to the Discrepancy Model of LD.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Currently, learning disabilities (LD) are diagnosed on the basis of the discrepancy between students' IQ and reading achievement scores. Students diagnosed with LD often receive remedial instruction in resource rooms. The available evidence suggests that the educational policy based on this discrepancy model has not yielded satisfactory results. This has led researchers to try other paradigms, such as the component model and response to intervention, for dealing with children with reading disabilities. The component model of reading (CMR) described in the present article identifies the reading component that is the source of reading difficulty and targets instruction at that component. Study 1 describes the CMR and reports on its validity. Study 2 describes the successful outcome of a 7-year CMR-based reading instruction program. Compared to the discrepancy model, the CMR has demonstrated several advantages.
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Reference: Aaron, P.G., Joshi, R.M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K.E. (2008). Diagnosis and Treatment of Reading Disabilities Based on the Component Model of Reading: An Alternative to the Discrepancy Model of LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41 (1), 67-84.
Title: Alterations in the Functional anatomy of reading induced by rehabilitation of an alexic patient.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Objective: The goal of the study
was to measure regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) in a stoke patient with
acquired phonologic alexia before and after therapy using the Auditory Discrimination
in Depth (ADD) program. Background: After rehabilitation
of acquired language disorders, functional imaging can detect activity in
brain structures that do not mediate language during normal conditions. However,
the anatomic correlates of recovery or rehabilitation from acquired reading
disorders are largely undescribed. Methods: Cerebral
SPECT scans were obtained before and after the intervention with Auditory
Discrimination in Depth. The first and last activation tasks necessitated
that the patient read nonwords during radionuclide uptake. Another
(control) scan was acquired during performance of a nonlinguistic task shortly
before the end of the ADD program. Results: Before
therapy, the right hemisphere was inactive during nonword reading relative
to the nonlinguistic task. After treatment, nonword reading increased
cerebral blood flow in the posterior right perisylvian cortices homologous
to the dominant hemisphere areas engaged by reading. Brain activity
also increased in Broca’s area of both hemispheres. Conclusions: Dyslexia
rehabilitation may facilitate right-hemisphere cortical networks in reading
process and increase engagement of phonologic articulatory motor representation
in Broca’s area.
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Reference: Adair, J., Nadeau, S., Conway, T., Gonzalez-Rothi, L., Heilman, P., Green, I., & Heilman, K. (2000). Alterations in the Functional anatomy of reading induced by rehabilitation of an alexic patient. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology, 13 (4), 303-311.
Title: Phonological awareness training and the remediation of analytic decoding deficits in a group of severe dyslexics.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Objective: The goal of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness
of the Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program (ADD) in remediating the
analytic decoding deficits of a group of severe dyslexics. A group
of ten severely dyslexic students ranging in age from 93 to 154 months were
treated in a clinic setting for 38 to 124 hours (average of 65 hours). Pre-
and post-treatment testing was done with the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test
and the Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization to assess changes in phonological
awareness and analytic decoding.
Click here to obtain a copy of the article in its entirety.
Reference: Alexander, A., Anderson, H., Heilman, P., Voeller, K., & Torgesen,
J. (1991). Phonological awareness training and the remediation of analytic
decoding deficits in a group of severe dyslexics. Annals of
Dyslexia, 41, 193-206.
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Title: Gestalt imagery: A critical factor in language comprehension.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Visualizing and Verbalizing® (VV®)
Abstract
Gestalt imagery-the ability to create imaged wholes-is a critical factor
in oral and written language comprehension. Despite good decoding,
good vocabulary, and adequate background experiences, many individuals
experience weak gestalt imagery, thus processing “parts” rather
the “wholes,” form verbal stimuli, spoken or written. This
contributes to a Language Comprehension Disorder that may be accompanied
by a commonality of symptoms: weak reading comprehension, weak oral language
comprehension, weak oral language expression, weak written language expression,
difficulty following directions, and weak sense of humor. Sequential
stimulation using an inquiry technique develops gestalt imagery and results
in significant improvement in reading comprehension.
Reference: Bell, N. (1991). Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 246-260.
Title: A Project of Hope: Lindamood-Bell Center in a School Project Final Evaluation Report.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Seeing Stars for Symbol Imagery (SI™), Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®), Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®) and the Center in a School (CIS) model.
Abstract
In September 2002, a literacy program for juvenile male wards was implemented
in San Diego County through a partnership between the Juvenile Court, the
County Office of Education, the District Attorney’s Office, and the
Probation Department. Many youth under Probation supervision read below their
appropriate grade level and this deficit can have long-lasting effects on
their later chances for success. This final evaluation report describes the
Lindamood-Bell Center in a School (CIS) project, outlines the research methodology,
and presents research findings from the process and impact evaluations that
were completed by the San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG).
Click here to obtain a copy of the article in its entirety.
Reference: Burke, C., Howard, L. & Evangelou, T. (2005). A Project of Hope: Lindamood-Bell Center in a School Project Final Evaluation Report. Retrieved December 13, 2006, from www.sandag.org.-C-
Title: Treatment of a case of phonological alexia with agraphia using the Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) program.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched:Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Phonological alexia and agraphia are acquired disorders characterized by
an impaired ability to convert graphemes to phonemes (alexia) or phonemes
to graphemes (agraphia). These disorders result in phonological errors typified
by adding, omitting, shifting, or repeating phonemes in words during reading
or graphemes when spelling. In developmental dyslexia, similar phonological
errors are believed to result from deficient phonological awareness, an oral
language skill that manifests itself in the ability to notice, think about,
or manipulate the individual sounds in words. The Auditory Discrimination
in Depth (ADD) program has been reported to train phonological awareness
in developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia. We used a multiple-probe design
to evaluate the ADD program's effectiveness with a patient with a mild phonological
alexia and mixed agraphia following a left hemisphere infarction. Large gains
in phonological awareness, reading and spelling nonwords, and reading and
spelling real words were demonstrated. A follow-up reassessment, 2 months
posttreatment, found the patient had maintained treatment gains in phonological
awareness and reading, and attained additional improvement in real word reading.
Reference: Conway, T., Heilman, P., Gonzalez-Rothi, L., Alexander, A., Adair, J., Crosson, B., Heilman, K. (1998). Treatment of a case of phonological alexia with agraphia using the Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) porgram. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4, 608-620.
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Title: Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Seeing Stars for Symbol Imagery (SI™), Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®), Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Brain imaging studies have explored the neural mechanisms of recovery in
adults following acquired disorders and, more recently, childhood developmental
disorders. However, the neural systems underlying adult rehabilitation
of neurobiologically based learning disabilities remain unexplored, despite
their high incidence. Here we characterize the differences in brain activity
during a phonological manipulation task before and after a behavioral intervention
in adults with developmental dyslexia. Phonologically targeted training
resulted in performance improvements in tutored compared to nontutored dyslexics,
and these gains were associated with signal increases in bilateral parietal
and right perisylvian cortices. Our findings demonstrate that behavioral
changes in tutored dyslexic adults are associated with (1) increased activity
in those left-hemisphere regions engaged by normal readers and (2) compensatory
activity in the right perisylvian cortex. Hence, behavioral plasticity
in adult developmental dyslexia involves two distinct neural mechanisms,
each of which has previously been observed either for remediation of developmental
or acquired reading disorders.
Reference: Eden G.F., Jones K.M., Cappell K., Gareau L., Wood F.B., Zeffiro T.A., Dietz N.A., Agnew J.A., Flowers D.L. (2004). Neural changes followin remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron, 44(3), 411-22.
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Title: Training reading comprehension in adequate decoders/poor comprehenders: Verbal versus visual strategies.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®)
Abstract
Third through fifth grade adequate decoders who were poor comprehenders
were trained for 10 weeks in either the verbally based reciprocal teaching
(RT) program (n=22) or the visually visualizing/verbalizing (V/V) program
(n=23), or they were assigned to an untreated control group (n=14). Training
reading comprehension strategies in small groups enhanced comprehension
as the experimental groups made significant gains on 11 measures, whereas
the untreated control group made only 1 significant gain. Between experimental
group comparisons (yielding effect sizes > .32) favored the RT groups
on several measures that depend on explicit, factual material, while the
V/V group was favored on several visually mediated measures. Regarding which
experimental condition was statistically optimal, the RT group made only
1 significantly greater gain the V/V group on answering text-explicit
open-ended questions.
Reference: Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2000). Training reading comprehension in adequate decoders/poor comprehenders: Verbal versus visual strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 4, 772-782.
-K-
Title: Effectiveness of the Lindamood Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program with students with learning disabilities.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Ten students with severe learning disabilities who received the Auditory
Discrimination in Depth Program (C. H. Lindamood & P. C. Lindamood, 1975:
referred to hereafter as the Lindamood program) on an intensive basis, in
addition to a comprehensive remedial program, were matched for Verbal IQ,
chronological age, reading, spelling, and phonological awareness abilities
with 10 other students with severe learning disabilities who also received
the comprehensive remedial program but not the Lindamood program component. Progress
in reading, spelling, phonological awareness, use of phonetic principles
in spelling of real and nonwords, and phonetic reading of nonwords were documented
in December and May. Significantly greater gains in phonological awareness
and phonetic spelling strategies were noted for the Lindamood program students
when beginning and end of the year scores were compared. Standardized
reading and spelling measures improved for both groups over the year but
were not significantly greater for the Lindamood program group. The
implications regarding future research are discussed.
Reference: Kennedy, K., & Backman, J. (1993). Effectiveness of the Lindamood Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program with students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 8 (4), 253-259.
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Title: Sensory-cognitive factors in the controversy over reading instruction.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
This paper presents information on the historical background of the long-standing
controversy over methods of teaching reading, and cites findings on the current
seriously inadequate levels of literacy documented in America. It is
argued that the low literacy levels and the controversy over teaching methods
are likely to continue until attention turns from reading methods to
the reading process, and the direct development of two important
sensory-cognitive functions that support and enhance oral and written language
processing. Evidence is presented that, although genetic differences
exist in individuals’ spontaneous access to these sensory-cognitive
functions, they can be developed through appropriate intervention either
preventively or remedially. Descriptions are provided of specific instructional
procedures that develop these sensory-cognitive functions, to illustrate
the conscious level of sensory feedback and integration that must be experientially
elicited through Socratic questioning. This questioning must respond
to students’ responses to meet students at the level of their processing. It
enables both children and adults to be moved by small steps of reasoning
to discover concepts involved in becoming self-correcting in language and
literacy learning. The position is taken that the direct development
of these sensory-cognitive functions needs to be widely addressed, and that
the conceptual base they provide permits students to experience success in
learning to read regardless of which reading method is used. This would
help to dissipate the controversy over reading methods and allow attention
and effort to focus on the process of reading.
Reference: Lindamood, P., Bell, N., & Lindamood P. (1997). Sensory-cognitive factors in the controversy over reading instruction. the Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders, 1 (1), 143-182.
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Title: Phonological awareness intervention: Comparison of Fast ForWord, Earobics, and LiPS.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Researchers have found that training in phonemic awareness (PA), a fundamental
element for reading acquisition, is effective in varying degrees, depending
on characteristics of the audience. In this study, the authors explored
the relative effectiveness of 3 programs – Fast ForWord, Earobics,
and LiPS. The authors randomly assigned 60 students with language and
reading deficits to 1 of 3 interventions. Students received three 1-hour
daily intervention sessions during a 20-day summer program conducted by a
large school district. Measure of PA, language-, and reading-related
skills were collected and analyzed. Earobics and LiPS were associated
with gains on PA measures 6 weeks after intervention. No group effects were
found of language or reading measures.
Reference: Pokorni, J., Worthington, C., & Jamison, P. (2004). Phonological awareness intervention: Comparison of Fast ForWord, Earobics, and LiPS. Journal of Educational Research, 97 (3), 147-157.
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Title: Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Seeing Stars for Symbol Imagery (SI™), Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®), Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
In 1997 Lindamood-Bell Learning Processes partnered with Pueblo School District
60 (PSD60) in Pueblo, Colorado to implement a theoretically based program
to improve low reading achievement on the Colorado Student Assessment Program
(CSAP). PSD60 is an urban district with large percentages of minority
enrollment and Title I schools. Program intervention was implemented
generally following the Comprehensive School Reform model (Borman, Hewes,
Overman, and Brown, 2003). This study focused on grades 3, 4, and 5
in which CSAP testing was conducted most years from 1997-2003. A series
of repeated measures analyses of covariance, controlling for school size,
minority student percentage, SES, and number of years a school was involved
in the intervention were conducted between PSD60 schools and the statewide
CSAP average. In both overall and Title 1 school analyses, statistically
significant and increasing gains favoring the intervention were found. Both
practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
Click here to obtain a copy of the article in its entirety.
Reference: Sadoski, M. and Willson, V. (2006). Effects of a Theoretically Based Large-Scale Reading Intervention in a Multicultural Urban School District. American Educational Research Journal, 43, 1, 137-154.Title: Dyslexia-specific brain activation profile becomes normal following successful remedial training.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
To examine changes in the spatiotemporal
brain activation profiles associated with successful completion of an intensive
intervention program in individual dyslexic children. Methods: The
authors obtained magnetic source imaging scans during a pseudoword reading
task from eight children (7 to 17 years old) before and after 80 hours of
intensive remedial instruction. All children were initially diagnosed with
dyslexia, marked by severe difficulties in word recognition and phonologic
processing. Eight children who never experienced reading problems were also
tested on two occasions separated by a 2-month interval. Results: Before
intervention, all children with dyslexia showed distinctly aberrant activation
profiles featuring little or no activation of the posterior portion of the
superior temporal gyrus (STGp), an area normally involved in phonologic processing,
and increased activation of the corresponding right hemisphere area. After
intervention that produced significant improvement in reading skills, activity
in the left STGp increased by several orders of magnitude in every participant.
No systematic changes were obtained in the activation profiles of the children
without dyslexia as a function of time. Conclusions: These
findings suggest that the deficit in functional brain organization underlying
dyslexia can be reversed after sufficiently intense intervention lasting
as little as 2 months, and are consistent with current proposals that reading
difficulties in many children represent a variation of normal development
that can be altered by intensive intervention.
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Reference: Simos, P., Fletcher, J., Bergman, E., Breier, J., Foorman, B., Castillo, E., Davis, R., Fitzgerald, M., & Papanicolaou, A. (2002). Neurology, 58, 1203-1212.-T-
Title: Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Sixty children with severe reading disabilities were randomly assigned to
two instructional programs that incorporated principles of effective instruction
but differed in depth and extent of instruction in phonemic awareness and
phonemic decoding skills. All children received 67.5 hours of one-to-one
instruction in two 50-minute sessions per day for 8 weeks. Both instructional
programs produced very large improvements in generalized reading skills that
were stable over a 2-year follow-up period. When compared to the growth
in broad reading ability that the participants made during their pervious
16 months in learning disabilities resource rooms, their growth during the
intervention produced effect sizes of 4.4 for one of the interventions and
3.9 for the other. Although the children’s average scores on
reading accuracy and comprehension were in the average range at the end of
the follow-up period, measures of reading rate showed continued severe impairment
for most of the children. Within 1 year following the intervention,
40% of the children were found to be no longer in need of special education
services. The two methods of instruction were not differently effective
for children who entered the study with different levels of phonological
ability, and the best overall predictors of long-term growth were resource
room teacher ratings of attention/behavior, general verbal ability, and prior
levels of component reading skills.
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Reference: Torgesen, J., Alexander, A., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Voeller, K., Conway, T. & Rose, E. (2001).Title: Intensive remedial instruction
for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term
outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
34, 33-58.
Title: Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
The relative effectiveness of 3 instructional approaches for the prevention
of reading disabilities in young children with weak phonological skills was
examined. Two programs varying in the intensity of instruction in phonemic
decoding were contrasted with each other and with a 3rd approach that supported
the children's regular classroom reading program. The children were provided
with 88 hr of one-to-one instruction beginning the second semester of kindergarten
and extending through 2nd grade. The most phonemically explicit condition
produced the strongest growth in word level reading skills, but there were
no differences between groups in reading comprehension. Word level skills
of children in the strongest group were in the middle of the average range.
Growth curve analyses showed that beginning phonological skills, home background,
and ratings of classroom behavior all predicted unique variance in growth
of word level skills.
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Reference: Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., Rashotte, C., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conway, T., & Garvin, C. (1999). Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579-593.Title: Remedial outcomes with different reading programs.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
In this paper, pre and post-test results are first presented on a relatively new research-based remedial reading program called Discover Reading. This program was developed at The Reading Foundation, a private clinic in Calgary, Alberta, that offers remedial reading services to students of all ages. Pre and post-test data for 146 students given 80 hours of one-on-one intervention using the Discover Reading Program is presented. Strong and significant gains (p<.001) were noted for phonemic processing; letter and sound knowledge; visual memory; word attack; word recognition; spelling and contextual fluency. Outcomes from the Discover Reading Program are then compared to the outcomes from two other programs previously used at the clinic – the Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program (LiPS) (Lindamood and Lindamood, 1998) and Phono-Graphix (McGuinness and McGuinness, 1998). Since all three programs contain many of the features required for effective remediation, the author hypothesized that remedial outcomes among the three programs would not be significantly different from each other, which indeed was supported by the statistical analysis. All three programs produced strong gains on all variables with large effect sizes also noted for each program. This author also presents a comprehensive framework of features that can be used to analyze any remedial program. Remedial programs with strong outcomes still differ from each other on important features and the framework can be used to analyze similarities and differences among programs.
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Reference: Truch, S. (2004). Remedial outcomes with different reading programs. Poster session presented at the International Dyslexia Conference, San Diego, 2004. Retrieved April 3, 2008 from, www.readingfoundation.com.Title: Stimulating basic reading processes using Auditory Discrimination in Depth.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing® (LiPS®)
Abstract
Recent research indicates that a major cause of reading (decoding)
disabilities lies in an inability to manipulate speech at its phonemic (phonological)
level. The Auditory Discrimination in Depth (ADD) program, stimulates
basic phonological awareness and has been used extensively at The Reading
Foundation in Calgary, Alberta. Here we present pre-and post-test
data from 281 clients (ranging from school-age through adulthood) seen over
a two-year period; post-test data was collected after 80 hours of ADD instruction. To
assess whether significant gains had been achieved, an analysis of covariance
was performed, covarying for age and initial vocabulary scores. After
80 hours of intensive instruction, highly significant gains (p<.001)
were evident on measures of phonological awareness, sound/symbol connections,
word identification, spelling, and decoding in context. In addition
to the treatment effect, age and vocabulary had some influence on some of
the variables. The data was also analyzed to determine whether the
results went beyond a “group effect” only. A total of 229
cases were tabulated for gains or losses on the word attack subtest and on
the reading and spelling subtests of the WRAT-R.
Click here to obtain a copy of the article in its entirety.
Reference: Truch, S. (1994). Stimulating basic reading processes using Auditory Discrimination in Depth. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 60-80.Title: Stimulating basic recall in hyperlexic students using the visualizing/verbalizing program.
Lindamood-Bell program(s) researched: Visualizing and Verbalizing® (V/V®)
Abstract
Reading disabilities can be broadly grouped into those which affect decoding and encoding and those which affect comprehension. Difficulties with decoding and spelling have long been recognized as learning disabilities. There is a rich history of research on dyslexia. However, difficulties with comprehension in the absence of decoding difficulties have not received as much attention. In this paper, the concept of “hyperlexia” is discussed using Paivio’s dual-coding theory as a theoretical foundation. An analysis of the short-term effectiveness of using Nanci Bell’s visualization and verbalization (V/V) program on the recall of 66 “hyperlexic” subjects is also presented. Highly significant gains (p<.0001) in cued recall were found for subjects after 80 hours of treatment. The data was covaried for age and vocabulary. Age had a significant effect on treatment results (p<.007) while vocabulary did not reach a significant level (p<.07).
Click here to obtain a copy of the article in its entirety.
Reference: Truch, S. (2004). Stimulating Basic Recall in Hyperlexic Students Using the Visualizing/Verbalizing Program. Retrieved on December 14, 2006 from www.readingfoundation.com.
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